An Overview of the Development of Taoism History
The origins of Taoist thought can be traced back to the pre-Qin period, with roots in Daoism and the Immortal schools of thought. Its organizational forms can also be traced back to the Warring States, Qin, and Han periods, including Fangxian Dao (Way of the Immortals) and Huang-Lao Dao (Way of Huang and Lao). Taoism officially established its religious organization with the founding of the Zhengyi (Orthodox Unity) sect by Zhang Daoling during the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty (126-144 AD). Thus, Taoism has a history of over 1,800 years and is one of the orthodox religions in China, alongside Buddhism.
The founder, Zhang Daoling, is revered as “Zhang Tianshi” (Heavenly Master). “Tianshi” was an ancient honorary title for those skilled in Taoist arts, meaning “teacher of the natural way.” The descendants of Zhang Daoling, known as the Zhang Tianshi family, have continued to hold the title of “Heavenly Master.”
After the Southern and Northern Dynasties, and during the Five Dynasties, rulers placed emphasis on the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism. However, each emperor had different preferences for these teachings, with some favoring Buddhism and others favoring Taoism. While honoring these teachings, rulers also strengthened their control over both Buddhism and Taoism.
During the Tang and Song dynasties, Taoism was further promoted by the ruling classes and developed into multiple schools of thought. After the Yuan Dynasty, Taoism gradually split into two major sects: the Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) sect and the Zhengyi (Orthodox Unity) sect. In the Ming Dynasty, the government established Daoist administrative bodies in the capital, provinces, and counties, integrating Taoism into the state’s administrative system. The Zhengyi sect held the highest political position among all Taoist sects. Ming Emperor Taizu believed that Chan Buddhism and Quanzhen Taoism, which focused on self-cultivation, were of little help to ethical education, and therefore, he favored the Zhengyi sect while diminishing the Quanzhen sect. As a result, the political influence of Quanzhen Taoism declined, and its development was restricted.
In the Qing Dynasty, the imperial family emphasized Tibetan Buddhism, with Emperor Qianlong (1736–1795) officially declaring the Yellow Sect as the national religion and Taoism as the religion of the Han Chinese. The authority of the Heavenly Master was restricted, reducing its status from the second rank to the fifth rank, and the tradition of sending the Heavenly Master to the court was abolished. During the Daoguang period (1821–1850), the traditional pilgrimage ceremony for Zhang Tianshi was also abolished. Taoism lost its connection with the court, and its status gradually declined. Due to the strict restrictions imposed by the imperial family, Taoism further weakened and became more rooted in folk practices.
The Opium War marked the beginning of a semi-feudal and semi-colonial society in China. Taoism not only suffered from repression by the Qing rulers but also from the influence of imperialist forces. This complex situation was exacerbated by the warlord conflicts and local division, leading to the further decentralization of Taoism. By 1929, the Baiyun Temple in Beijing had officially recognized over 80 Taoist sects, along with many folk religious organizations that combined Taoism and Buddhism. Taoism was deeply impacted by the introduction of modern cultural and ideological influences, which accelerated its fusion with other schools of thought. However, Taoist beliefs and practices continued to have a deep influence on the Chinese population.
In 1912, Chen Yukun, the abbot of Baiyun Temple in Beijing, founded the “Central Taoist Association” with the Quanzhen sect as the core. In the same year, Zhang Yuanxu, the 62nd generation Heavenly Master of Longhu Mountain, founded the “Taoist Association of the Republic of China” in Shanghai, followed by the “Shanghai Orthodox Taoist Association.” In 1927, the “China Taoist Association” was established in Shanghai, and in 1932, Quanzhen and Zhengyi sects jointly founded the “China Taoist Association.” Numerous Taoist organizations continued to emerge, including the “Southeast China Taoist Association” in Shenyang and the “Shaanxi Taoist Association” in Xi’an. However, due to their local or sectarian nature, these organizations often lacked coordination.
After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, Taoism underwent significant changes. The new government implemented a policy of religious freedom, respecting and protecting the faith of Taoists. Feudal laws in Taoist temples were abolished, and democratic management organizations were established. Taoist priests became self-sustaining laborers. In 1957, the China Taoist Association was formally established at Baiyun Temple in Beijing, with Yue Chongdai as its first president. In 1961, the second national Taoist representative conference was held, electing Chen Yingning as president. Under Chen’s leadership, the association established research offices and began publishing the “Taoist Association Journal” and offering Taoist knowledge training courses.
During the Cultural Revolution, Taoism, like other sectors, was severely impacted by the left-wing political movement. Taoist temples were closed, and Taoist activities were halted. The China Taoist Association was forced to cease operations. However, after the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee, the policy of religious freedom was reinstated, and the China Taoist Association resumed its work. In 1989, the Quanzhen sect resumed its ordination activities, which had been suspended for ten years, with the first ordination ceremony held at Baiyun Temple. In 1990, the China Taoist College was established, and in 1995, the long-suspended Zhengyi sect ordination ceremonies were resumed at Longhu Mountain in Jiangxi.
During the Cultural Revolution, Taoism, like other sectors, was severely impacted by the left-wing political movement. Taoist temples were closed, and Taoist activities were halted. The China Taoist Association was forced to cease operations. However, after the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee, the policy of religious freedom was reinstated, and the China Taoist Association resumed its work. In 1989, the Quanzhen sect resumed its ordination activities, which had been suspended for ten years, with the first ordination ceremony held at Baiyun Temple. In 1990, the China Taoist College was established, and in 1995, the long-suspended Zhengyi sect ordination ceremonies were resumed at Longhu Mountain in Jiangxi.